Introduction
Rainwater harvesting has emerged as a crucial strategy for addressing water scarcity and promoting sustainable water management in various sectors, including agriculture and industry. The implementation of rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) offers multiple benefits, such as reducing reliance on groundwater, improving local water management, and providing a sustainable water source for domestic and agricultural use (Liu & Cui, 2024). In industrial settings, RWHS can significantly contribute to reducing annual freshwater consumption, promoting resource reuse, and lowering water costs, aligning with sustainability goals within the Horizon 2050 framework (Dias et al., 2024).
The importance of rainwater harvesting in water conservation
The importance of rainwater harvesting in water conservation cannot be overstated, particularly in regions facing water scarcity and increasing demand. In Malaysia, for instance, a study conducted in a primary school in Malacca demonstrated that implementing a rainwater harvesting system not only reduced freshwater consumption but also provided environmental, social, and economic benefits (Praveena & Themudu, 2022). Similarly, research in Faisalabad, Pakistan, revealed that while basic water conservation practices are widely adopted, the uptake of advanced solutions like rainwater harvesting remains limited, highlighting the need for targeted educational programs and inclusive technologies (Aslam & Amar, 2023).
Brief history and current state of rainwater harvesting systems
Rainwater harvesting systems have a rich history dating back to ancient civilizations, with evidence of their use found in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia. In modern times, these systems have evolved significantly, incorporating advanced technologies and design principles to maximize efficiency and sustainability (Nabit et al., 2023).
Challenges in Rainwater Harvesting
Despite the numerous benefits of rainwater harvesting systems, their implementation faces several challenges that hinder widespread adoption. One significant obstacle is the lack of standardized regulatory frameworks and guidelines for RWHS design and operation, which can lead to inconsistent performance and potential health risks (Vinh et al., 2024). Additionally, the initial investment costs and the need for regular maintenance can deter potential users, particularly in economically disadvantaged regions (Vaz et al., 2023).
Technical Challenges
One significant technical challenge in rainwater harvesting systems is the potential for water contamination, which can occur due to pollutants on catchment surfaces or inadequate filtration mechanisms (Zhou et al., 2022). Additionally, the design and implementation of efficient storage systems that minimize water loss through evaporation and seepage remain critical issues, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions (Mushayi et al., 2023).
System design and efficiency
Efficient system design is crucial for maximizing the performance of rainwater harvesting systems, with key considerations including catchment area optimization, storage capacity, and filtration mechanisms. Recent innovations in RWHS design have focused on improving collection efficiency and water quality, such as the development of the Inverted Umbrella-Type Rainwater Harvesting System, which demonstrates high collection efficiency even during light showers while occupying minimal space (Tarranum et al., 2023).
Water quality concerns
Water quality concerns in rainwater harvesting systems primarily stem from potential contamination during collection, storage, and distribution processes. A study conducted in Palestine highlighted the need for smart chlorination units and automated monitoring systems to control fecal coliform levels and maintain appropriate residual chlorine concentrations in harvested rainwater (Judeh et al., 2022). Additionally, the implementation of screens, filters, and first flush diverters has been shown to effectively address turbidity issues in collected rainwater, further improving overall water quality (Judeh et al., 2022).
Storage limitations
Storage limitations in rainwater harvesting systems pose significant challenges, particularly in regions with irregular rainfall patterns or prolonged dry seasons. To address this issue, innovative storage solutions such as underground tanks and modular systems have been developed, allowing for increased storage capacity while minimizing land use (Patel et al., 2023). Additionally, the integration of smart technologies for real-time monitoring and management of storage levels has shown promise in optimizing water usage and preventing overflow or shortages (Vinh et al., 2024).
Environmental Challenges
Environmental challenges in rainwater harvesting systems encompass issues related to climate variability and the potential impacts of climate change on precipitation patterns. A study conducted in India revealed that anomalies in surface water availability, as measured by the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), can significantly affect water resources and agricultural production (García et al., 2020). Furthermore, the implementation of rainwater harvesting systems must consider the broader ecological impacts, including potential alterations to local hydrological cycles and groundwater recharge rates (Vaz et al., 2023).
Climate variability and unpredictable rainfall patterns
Climate variability and unpredictable rainfall patterns pose significant challenges to the effectiveness of rainwater harvesting systems, particularly in regions prone to extreme weather events. A study conducted in Greece demonstrated that RWH system performance can vary significantly under different climate change scenarios, with instances where daily demand targets may not be met even with large storage capacities (Feloni & Nastos, 2024). To address these challenges, adaptive strategies such as adjusting sowing dates and implementing excess rainwater harvesting during wet periods have been proposed to mitigate the impacts of rainfall variability on water-intensive crops like rice (Barati et al., 2022).
Pollution and contamination risks
A study conducted in Palestine demonstrated the effectiveness of smart chlorination units and automated monitoring systems in controlling fecal coliform levels and maintaining appropriate residual chlorine concentrations in harvested rainwater . Additionally, the implementation of screens, filters, and first flush diverters has shown promise in addressing turbidity issues, further enhancing the overall quality of collected rainwater .
Economic Challenges
The initial costs associated with implementing rainwater harvesting systems can be a significant barrier, particularly for small-scale farmers and low-income communities (Waseem et al., 2023). To address this challenge, innovative financing mechanisms and government subsidies have been proposed to make RWHS more accessible and economically viable for a wider range of users (Roba et al., 2021).
Initial installation costs
The initial installation costs of rainwater harvesting systems can be particularly prohibitive for small-scale farmers and low-income communities, often requiring significant upfront investment . To address this challenge, innovative financing mechanisms such as microfinance loans and community-based savings groups have been proposed to make RWHS more accessible and economically viable for a wider range of users (Vázquez et al., 2023).
Maintenance expenses
Regular maintenance of rainwater harvesting systems is crucial for ensuring their long-term effectiveness and preventing potential health risks associated with water contamination. A study conducted in Brazil found that inadequate maintenance practices, particularly in low-income communities, led to decreased system efficiency and increased risk of waterborne diseases (Beirne et al., 2022). To address this challenge, innovative approaches such as community-based maintenance programs and the integration of smart monitoring technologies have been proposed to improve system performance and reduce long-term costs (Kim et al., 2016).
Social and Cultural Challenges
Social and cultural challenges in implementing rainwater harvesting systems often stem from a lack of awareness and traditional water use practices. A study in Faisalabad, Pakistan revealed that while basic water conservation practices are widely adopted, the uptake of advanced solutions like rainwater harvesting remains limited . To address these challenges, targeted educational programs and inclusive technologies have been proposed, aiming to increase community acceptance and participation in sustainable water management practices .
Lack of awareness and education
A study conducted in Kenya revealed that women demonstrated statistically significant better attitudes toward rainwater harvesting compared to men, suggesting the potential effectiveness of involving women as change agents in promoting RWHS adoption (Kanyi et al., 2017). Additionally, research in Nepal identified independence for water access and system sophistication as significant factors influencing the adaptation of RWHS in urban areas, with relative advantage playing a moderating role (Thapa et al., 2022).
Regulatory barriers and policy issues
The lack of clear regulatory frameworks and policy guidelines for rainwater harvesting systems presents a significant challenge to their widespread adoption and implementation. A study conducted in Vietnam highlighted the need for standardized regulations and guidelines to ensure consistent performance and mitigate potential health risks associated with RWHS . To address this issue, some countries have begun developing comprehensive policy frameworks that integrate rainwater harvesting into broader water management strategies, as exemplified by Kenya's efforts to align national policies with local-level actions for increased climate resilience (Mutschinski & Coles, 2023).
Potential Solutions and Innovations
To address these challenges and harness the full potential of rainwater harvesting systems, innovative solutions and technologies are being developed and implemented worldwide. One such innovation is the integration of smart technologies for real-time monitoring and management of storage levels, which has shown promise in optimizing water usage and preventing overflow or shortages . Additionally, the development of low-cost sensors and nodes for irrigation management and agriculture monitoring offers potential for smaller farmers to implement effective water management systems (García et al., 2020).
Technological Advancements
Recent technological advancements in rainwater harvesting systems have focused on improving efficiency and addressing key challenges. One notable innovation is the development of low-cost sensors and nodes for irrigation management and agriculture monitoring, which enables smaller farmers to implement effective water management systems (García et al., 2020). Additionally, smart chlorination units and automated monitoring systems have been implemented to control fecal coliform levels and maintain appropriate residual chlorine concentrations in harvested rainwater (Judeh et al., 2022).
Smart monitoring and filtration systems
Recent advancements in smart monitoring and filtration systems for rainwater harvesting have significantly improved water quality management and system efficiency. For instance, the implementation of low-cost sensors and nodes for irrigation management enables smaller farmers to effectively monitor and control their water resources (García et al., 2020). Additionally, the development of smart chlorination units and automated monitoring systems has proven effective in controlling fecal coliform levels and maintaining appropriate residual chlorine concentrations in harvested rainwater (Judeh et al., 2022).
Improved storage technologies
Recent advancements in storage technologies for rainwater harvesting systems have focused on addressing the challenges of limited capacity and environmental impact. One innovative approach involves the development of modular underground storage tanks, which maximize space utilization while minimizing land use and evaporation losses (Joleha et al., 2019). Additionally, the integration of smart sensors and real-time monitoring systems has enabled more efficient management of stored rainwater, allowing for optimized usage and distribution based on demand patterns (García et al., 2020).
Integration with IoT and AI for optimal management
The integration of IoT and AI technologies in rainwater harvesting systems has led to the development of advanced management solutions. For instance, machine learning algorithms can analyze historical rainfall data and weather patterns to optimize storage capacity and predict future water availability (García et al., 2020). These smart systems can also automate irrigation schedules based on real-time soil moisture data and crop water requirements, significantly improving water use efficiency in agricultural applications (García et al., 2020).
Sustainable Design Approaches
Sustainable design approaches in rainwater harvesting systems focus on optimizing system efficiency while minimizing environmental impact. One innovative approach involves the integration of green infrastructure elements, such as bioswales and permeable pavements, to enhance rainwater capture and filtration (Bañas et al., 2023). Additionally, the implementation of modular rainwater harvesting systems, such as the E-SPAH concept, allows for scalable and adaptable designs that can be tailored to specific site conditions and water demand requirements (Mostaffa et al., 2021).
Green infrastructure integration
The integration of green infrastructure in rainwater harvesting systems has shown promising results in urban environments. For instance, a study conducted in Alexandria, Egypt demonstrated that implementing green infrastructure solutions in neighborhoods with existing infrastructure problems significantly reduced rainwater flooding and improved overall urban livability (Shehata, 2018). Additionally, the incorporation of rain gardens and bioswales into rainwater harvesting systems has been found to enhance water quality through natural filtration processes while simultaneously providing aesthetic and ecological benefits to urban landscapes (Ali et al., 2023).
Dual-purpose systems (e.g., rooftop gardens)
Dual-purpose systems, such as rooftop gardens integrated with rainwater harvesting, offer innovative solutions to urban water management challenges. A study conducted in Dhaka city demonstrated that implementing rooftop rainwater harvesting systems could potentially reduce surface runoff by 61.71% during rainfall events, significantly mitigating water logging problems (Tabassum et al., 2013). These systems not only provide water for non-potable uses but also contribute to urban greening and temperature regulation, enhancing overall urban resilience.
Economic Incentives and Financing
To address the economic challenges associated with rainwater harvesting systems, innovative financing mechanisms have been proposed. A study conducted in coastal Bangladesh revealed that factors such as income, storage capacity, water price, and age of rainwater harvesting systems positively impact the economic benefits at the household level (Islam, 2022). Additionally, some countries have implemented economic instruments, such as discounts on rainwater drainage fees and municipal subsidy programs, to incentivize property owners to invest in rainwater management solutions (Godyń, 2022).
Government subsidies and tax benefits
To address the economic barriers associated with government subsidies and tax benefits for rainwater harvesting systems, some countries have implemented innovative financial incentives. For instance, in Poland, discounts on rainwater drainage fees and municipal subsidy programs have been introduced to encourage property owners to invest in rainwater management solutions . These economic instruments not only reduce the financial burden on individuals but also promote the widespread adoption of sustainable water management practices.
Innovative financing models
To address the financial barriers associated with implementing rainwater harvesting systems, innovative financing models have emerged. One such approach involves the integration of cash waqf with infrastructure investment funds, as demonstrated by the Cash Waqf Linked DINFRA (CWL-FRA) model in Indonesia (Wijaya, 2023). This model allocates waqf funds to infrastructure investments, generating profits that can be used for long-term sustainable assets while simultaneously addressing funding challenges in the infrastructure sector.
Policy and Regulatory Solutions
To address the challenges associated with implementing comprehensive policy frameworks for rainwater harvesting systems, some countries have begun integrating these strategies into broader water management initiatives. For example, Kenya has made efforts to align national policies with local-level actions to increase climate resilience through improved rainwater harvesting practices . These policy approaches aim to standardize regulations, provide clear guidelines, and create incentives for widespread adoption of rainwater harvesting technologies.
Updating building codes and regulations
To address these challenges, some countries have implemented comprehensive regulatory frameworks that integrate rainwater harvesting into broader water management strategies. For example, in Malaysia, efforts have been made to update building codes and regulations to include specific provisions for rainwater harvesting systems, although these have been found to be inadequate for guiding local councils in building approval, inspection, and enforcement (Bakar et al., 2023). This highlights the need for more robust and detailed regulatory frameworks that can effectively support the implementation and maintenance of rainwater harvesting systems across various sectors.
Implementing supportive policies
To further support the implementation of supportive policies for rainwater harvesting systems, some countries have developed comprehensive regulatory frameworks that integrate these strategies into broader water management initiatives. For example, in Kenya, efforts have been made to align national policies with local-level actions to increase climate resilience through improved rainwater harvesting practices . This approach aims to standardize regulations, provide clear guidelines, and create incentives for widespread adoption of rainwater harvesting technologies across various sectors.
Education and Awareness Programs
To address the lack of awareness and education surrounding rainwater harvesting systems, targeted educational programs have been developed in various regions. A study conducted in Kenya revealed that women demonstrated statistically significant better attitudes toward rainwater harvesting compared to men, suggesting the potential effectiveness of involving women as change agents in promoting RWHS adoption (Kanyi et al., 2017). Additionally, research in Nepal identified independence for water access and system sophistication as significant factors influencing the adaptation of RWHS in urban areas, with relative advantage playing a moderating role (Thapa et al., 2022).
Community engagement initiatives
To enhance the effectiveness of community engagement initiatives for rainwater harvesting systems, a study in Kenya found that involving women as change agents led to statistically significant improvements in attitudes towards RWHS adoption . This approach can be complemented by implementing participatory design workshops and demonstration projects to increase community awareness and acceptance of rainwater harvesting technologies (Moscibrodzki et al., 2022).
Training programs for installation and maintenance
To address the challenges associated with training programs for installation and maintenance of rainwater harvesting systems, some organizations have implemented community-based approaches. For example, a study in Bangladesh found that involving local stakeholders in training programs improved the long-term sustainability of RWH systems by enhancing users' knowledge of proper maintenance techniques and water quality testing protocols (Ghosh & Ahmed, 2022). These community-based training initiatives not only improve system performance but also foster a sense of ownership and responsibility among users, contributing to the overall success of rainwater harvesting projects.
Case Studies
To further illustrate the effectiveness of rainwater harvesting systems in various contexts, a case study conducted at the University of Genova in Italy analyzed a quasi-bicentennial daily rainfall series to assess the impact of long-term precipitation trends on the performance of an RWH system for urban green area irrigation (Cauteruccio & Lanza, 2023). The results demonstrated that RWH systems for landscape irrigation remain reliable and resilient solutions, even when considering rainfall variations over the past 200 years (Cauteruccio & Lanza, 2023).
Successful rainwater harvesting projects worldwide
One notable example of a successful rainwater harvesting project is the implementation of rooftop rainwater harvesting systems in Dhaka city, Bangladesh. This initiative demonstrated the potential to reduce surface runoff by 61.71% during rainfall events, significantly mitigating water logging problems in urban areas . Additionally, a case study conducted at the University of Genova in Italy analyzed a quasi-bicentennial daily rainfall series to assess the long-term performance of an RWH system for urban green area irrigation, demonstrating the reliability and resilience of these systems over extended periods .
Lessons learned and best practices
A case study conducted at the University of Genova in Italy analyzed a quasi-bicentennial daily rainfall series to assess the impact of long-term precipitation trends on the performance of an RWH system for urban green area irrigation (Cauteruccio & Lanza, 2023). The results demonstrated that RWH systems for landscape irrigation remain reliable and resilient solutions, even when considering rainfall variations over the past 200 years (Cauteruccio & Lanza, 2023).
Future Outlook
The future outlook for rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) is promising, with ongoing research focusing on optimizing system design and efficiency. A study conducted at the University of Genova demonstrated the long-term reliability and resilience of RWHS for landscape irrigation, even when considering rainfall variations over a 200-year period (Cauteruccio & Lanza, 2023). This research underscores the potential for RWHS to serve as sustainable water management solutions in the face of changing climate patterns and increasing water demands.
Emerging trends in rainwater harvesting
One emerging trend in rainwater harvesting is the integration of advanced sensor technologies and Internet of Things (IoT) devices for real-time monitoring and management of water collection and storage systems (Raimondi et al., 2023). These smart systems enable more efficient water usage by providing accurate data on rainfall patterns, storage levels, and water quality, allowing for optimized decision-making in water distribution and conservation efforts (García et al., 2020).
Potential for widespread adoption
The potential for widespread adoption of rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) is influenced by various factors, including economic incentives, regulatory frameworks, and community engagement. A study in Kenya revealed that women demonstrated statistically significant better attitudes toward rainwater harvesting compared to men, suggesting the potential effectiveness of involving women as change agents in promoting RWHS adoption . Additionally, research in Nepal identified independence for water access and system sophistication as significant factors influencing the adaptation of RWHS in urban areas, with relative advantage playing a moderating role (Thapa et al., 2022).
Conclusion
The implementation of rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) presents a multifaceted approach to addressing water scarcity and promoting sustainable water management across various sectors. A case study conducted at the University of Genova analyzed a quasi-bicentennial daily rainfall series, demonstrating the long-term reliability and resilience of RWHS for landscape irrigation, even when considering rainfall variations over a 200-year period (Cauteruccio & Lanza, 2023). This research underscores the potential for RWHS to serve as sustainable water management solutions in the face of changing climate patterns and increasing water demands.
Recap of challenges and solutions
The challenges and solutions discussed highlight the multifaceted nature of implementing sustainable rainwater harvesting systems. A comprehensive approach to addressing these challenges involves integrating technological innovations with policy frameworks and community engagement strategies. For instance, the development of smart monitoring systems and IoT-enabled devices has shown promise in optimizing water usage and distribution based on real-time data analysis (García et al., 2020).
The role of rainwater harvesting in sustainable water management
Rainwater harvesting systems play a crucial role in sustainable water management by reducing reliance on traditional water sources and mitigating the impacts of climate variability. A study conducted at the University of Genova demonstrated the long-term reliability and resilience of RWHS for landscape irrigation, even when considering rainfall variations over a 200-year period . This research underscores the potential of RWHS to address water scarcity challenges in urban environments, particularly in regions experiencing irregular precipitation patterns and increasing water demands.
References
Liu, M., & Cui, L. (2024). Optimization of Domestic Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces, Southern China. Innovation Science and Technology.
Dias, D. F. C., Abily, M., Ribeiro, J. M., Jouhara, H., & Katsou, E. (2024). Screening Rainwater Harvesting Potentialities in the EU Industrial Sector: A Framework for Site-Specific Assessment. Water.
Praveena, S., & Themudu, S. (2022). Water Conservation Initiative in a Public School from Tropical Country: Performance and Sustainability Assessments. Water Conservation & Management.
Aslam, S. B., & Amar, N. (2023). Household Water Conservation in Pakistan: An Examination of Strategies, Behaviors and Determinants. Journal of Economic Impact.
Nabit, B. I., Al-Anbari, R., & Alwan, I. (2023). Identifying Suitability Rainwater Harvesting Zones in Diyala Watershed, Iraq, Using Multi-Criteria Analysis and GIS Modelling. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environment, 1158.
Vinh, D. H., Tran, D., Cham, D. D., Hang, P. T. T., Man, D. B., Mon, D., Tung, L. H., Kiem, L. V., Nguyen, T. D., & Tuyen, D. T. N. (2024). Integrated Exploitation of Rainwater and Groundwater: A Strategy for Water Self-Sufficiency in Ca Mau Province of the Mekong Delta. Hydrology.
Vaz, I. C. M., Istchuk, R. N., Oneda, T. M. S., & Ghisi, E. (2023). Sustainable Rainwater Management and Life Cycle Assessment: Challenges and Perspectives. Sustainability.
Zhou, W., Matsumoto, K., & Sawaki, M. (2022). Traditional domestic rainwater harvesting systems: classification, sustainability challenges, and future perspectives. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 22, 576–588.
Mushayi, M. M., Kusangaya, S., & Mujere, N. (2023). Use of remote sensing to determine rainwater harvesting sites for piped micro-irrigation schemes in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe. Water S.A.
Tarranum, R., Babu, M., Kulkarni, P. S., Reddy, G. V. S., Palled, V., & G., R. (2023). Performance Evaluation of Inverted Umbrella Type Rainwater Harvesting System at Raichur Campus. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change.
Judeh, T., Shahrour, I., & Comair, F. (2022). Smart Rainwater Harvesting for Sustainable Potable Water Supply in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas. Sustainability.
Patel, M., Pant, V., Sikligar, H., Quadri, S., Bachar, N., & Maurya, N. (2023). Harnessing conventional wisdom for rain water harvesting to mitigate the risks of climate change. Environment Conservation Journal.
García, L., Parra, L., Jiménez, J. M., Lloret, J., & Lorenz, P. (2020). IoT-Based Smart Irrigation Systems: An Overview on the Recent Trends on Sensors and IoT Systems for Irrigation in Precision Agriculture. Italian National Conference on Sensors, 20.
Feloni, E., & Nastos, P. (2024). Evaluating Rainwater Harvesting Systems for Water Scarcity Mitigation in Small Greek Islands under Climate Change. Sustainability.
Barati, M., Manivasagam, V., Nikoo, M., Saravanane, P., Narayanan, A., & Manalil, S. (2022). Rainfall Variability and Rice Sustainability: An Evaluation Study of Two Distinct Rice-Growing Ecosystems. Land.
Waseem, M., Ghazi, S. M. U., Ahmed, N., Ayaan, M., & Leta, M. K. (2023). Rainwater Harvesting as Sustainable Solution to Cope with Drinking Water Scarcity and Urban Flooding: A Case Study of Public Institutions in Lahore, Pakistan. CivilEng.
Roba, N. T., Kassa, A. K., Geleta, D. Y., & Hishe, B. K. (2021). Achievements, challenges and opportunities of rainwater harvesting in the Ethiopia context: a review working paper No. 1. Water Supply : The Review Journal of the International Water Supply Association.
Vázquez, B. I. R., Sánchez, E. R. S., Martínez, J. M. E., Albores, M. A. G., Noguez, F. G., Flores, C. G., & Mendoza, Ó. T. (2023). Use of Analytic Hierarchy Process Method to Identify Potential Rainwater Harvesting Sites: Design and Financial Strategies in Taxco de Alarcón, Southern Mexico. Sustainability.
Beirne, M., Silverman, J., Bronzi, O., Quiros, M., Kosinski, K., & Tendulkar, S. (2022). Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Urban Areas and the Potential Value of Incorporating Community Engagement. The Columbia University Journal of Global Health.
Kim, Y.-K., Han, M., Kabubi, J., Sohn, H., & Nguyen, D. C. (2016). Community-based rainwater harvesting (CB-RWH) to supply drinking water in developing countries: lessons learned from case studies in Africa and Asia. Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, 16, 1110–1121.
Kanyi, M., Lawver, D., Ulmer, J., & Murimi, M. (2017). Attitudes and Adoption of Rainwater Harvesting: Influence of Gender, Awareness, and Social Status. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education.
Thapa, A., Khanal, G., Mahapatra, S., Devkota, N., Mahato, S., & Paudel, U. R. (2022). Identifying determinants of sustainable water management at the household level through rainwater harvesting systems in Nepal. Water Policy.
Mutschinski, K., & Coles, N. (2023). Adoption of rainwater harvesting as a sustainable approach to improving the climate resilience of small landholders in Kenya. World Water Policy.
Joleha, J., Mulyadi, A., Wawan, W., & Suprayogi, I. (2019). Application of Rainwater Harvesting Technology to Supply Sustainable Domestic Water. International Journal of Electrical, Energy and Power System Engineering.
Bañas, K., Robles, M. E., & Maniquiz-Redillas, M. (2023). Stormwater Harvesting from Roof Catchments: A Review of Design, Efficiency, and Sustainability. Water.
Mostaffa, M. F., Musa, S. M. S., Zainal, R., Zainal, N., Noh, H. M., & Yassin, A. Md. (2021). E-SPAH: Aesthetic Innovation in UTHM’s Small-scale Rainwater Harvesting System. International Journal of Integrated Engineering.
Shehata, S. (2018). THE IMPACT OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RAINWATER HARVESTING ON SUSTAINABLE URBANISM: CASE STUDY IN ALEXANDRIA, EGYPT. Sustainable Development and Planning X.
Ali, N. H. M., Rus, R. C., & binti Mohd Noor, A. I. (2023). Potential Green Infrastructure in TVET Campus: A Case Study in Teluk Intan Vocational College. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences.
Tabassum, A., Ovi, F. H., Hanif, M., & Islam, I. (2013). Rainwater harvesting as an alternative option for sustainable water management of Dhaka city. 179, 327–337.
Islam, M. R. (2022). Factors influencing economic benefit of rainwater harvesting: an empirical analysis. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology. Aqua.
Godyń, I. (2022). Economic Incentives in Stormwater Management: A Study of Practice Gaps in Poland. Water.
Wijaya, R. P. (2023). CASH WAQF LINKED DINFRA (CWL-FRA) AS WAQF INNOVATION MODEL INTEGRATED WITH INFRASTRUCTURE INSTRUMENT FOR NATIONAL ECONOMIC RECOVERY AND SUSTAINABILITY. Malaysian Journal of Syariah and Law.
Bakar, M. N. H. A., Latif, H. M., & Samsudin, N. (2023). A Road Map for Intervention Research to Enhance Rainwater Harvesting By-Laws Adherence in Malaysia: A Short Communication. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences.
Moscibrodzki, P., Ahumuza, E., Li, J., Sun, X., Tao, Y., van Niekerk, L., Amazigo, U., Halpaap, B., Awor, P., & Tucker, J. D. (2022). Social innovation in health, community engagement, financing and outcomes: qualitative analysis from the social innovation in health initiative. BMJ Innovations, 8, 216–223.
Ghosh, S., & Ahmed, T. (2022). Assessment of Household Rainwater Harvesting Systems in the Southwestern Coastal Region of Bangladesh: Existing Practices and Household Perception. Water.
Cauteruccio, A., & Lanza, L. G. (2023). The Long-Term Performance of a Rainwater Harvesting System Based on a Quasi-Bicentennial Rainfall Time Series. Sustainability.
Raimondi, A., Quinn, R., Abhijith, G. R., Becciu, G., & Ostfeld, A. (2023). Rainwater Harvesting and Treatment: State of the Art and Perspectives. Water.