Introduction
Irrigation practices in semi-arid Mediterranean landscapes, such as Valencia, Spain, have a significant impact on groundwater recharge and evapotranspiration rates. Recent studies have shown that the transition from flood to drip irrigation systems can lead to a decrease in mean groundwater recharge of up to 9.3% under drip irrigation, compared to 6.6% under flood irrigation (Pool et al., 2021). This shift in irrigation techniques not only affects water resource management but also influences the hydrological dynamics of the region, with drip irrigation showing a smaller recharge response to individual precipitation events compared to flood irrigation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021).
Overview of Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean climate
Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and mild winters, with an average annual rainfall of approximately 450 mm (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2023). This climatic pattern, combined with the region's complex topography and diverse agricultural practices, creates a unique hydrological environment that significantly influences groundwater recharge dynamics and irrigation management strategies (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021).
Importance of groundwater resources in the region
Groundwater resources play a crucial role in sustaining agricultural activities and water supply in Valencia's semi-arid climate. The region's aquifers serve as natural reservoirs, buffering against seasonal variations in precipitation and providing a reliable source of water for irrigation during dry periods (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). However, the increasing pressure on these resources due to climate change and intensive agricultural practices necessitates a comprehensive understanding of the spatiotemporal dynamics of groundwater recharge under different irrigation systems (Pool et al., 2021).
Brief introduction to flood and drip irrigation methods
Flood irrigation, a traditional method, involves applying water to the entire field surface, while drip irrigation delivers water directly to the plant roots through a network of pipes and emitters. The transition from flood to drip irrigation systems in Valencia has led to significant changes in water distribution patterns and soil moisture dynamics, with drip irrigation showing a more localized and efficient water application (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This shift in irrigation techniques not only affects water use efficiency but also alters the spatiotemporal patterns of groundwater recharge, necessitating a comprehensive analysis of their impacts on the region's hydrological cycle (Zhang et al., 2022).
Theoretical Background
The theoretical background for understanding irrigation dynamics in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape encompasses the complex interplay between soil physics, hydrology, and agricultural practices. Specifically, the transition from flood to drip irrigation systems has led to significant changes in soil moisture distribution patterns, with drip irrigation showing more localized water application and potentially reduced deep percolation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This shift in irrigation techniques not only affects water use efficiency but also alters the spatiotemporal patterns of groundwater recharge, necessitating a comprehensive analysis of their impacts on the region's hydrological cycle (Zhang et al., 2022).
Groundwater recharge processes
Groundwater recharge processes in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape are influenced by various factors, including precipitation patterns, soil characteristics, and irrigation practices. The transition from flood to drip irrigation has led to significant changes in the spatial distribution of soil moisture and the temporal dynamics of water infiltration (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). Studies have shown that while flood irrigation tends to result in higher annual recharge rates, drip irrigation exhibits a more rapid response to individual precipitation events, potentially altering the timing and magnitude of groundwater replenishment (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021).
Factors affecting recharge in semi-arid regions
In Valencia's semi-arid climate, several key factors influence groundwater recharge, including precipitation patterns, soil characteristics, land use, and topography. The complex interplay between these factors is further modulated by the choice of irrigation method, with drip irrigation systems demonstrating a more localized impact on soil moisture distribution compared to flood irrigation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This localized effect of drip irrigation can lead to significant variations in recharge patterns across different spatial scales, necessitating a nuanced approach to water resource management in the region (Zhang et al., 2022).
Spatiotemporal concepts in hydrology
Spatiotemporal concepts in hydrology are crucial for understanding the complex dynamics of groundwater recharge in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape. These concepts encompass the spatial variability of hydrological processes across different scales, from field-level irrigation patterns to regional aquifer systems, as well as the temporal fluctuations in recharge rates influenced by seasonal precipitation patterns and irrigation schedules (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). The transition from flood to drip irrigation has introduced new spatiotemporal patterns in soil moisture distribution and groundwater recharge, necessitating a reevaluation of traditional hydrological models and water management strategies (Pool et al., 2021).
Irrigation Methods
Flood irrigation and drip irrigation systems exhibit distinct characteristics in terms of water distribution and application efficiency. While flood irrigation involves applying water to the entire field surface, drip irrigation delivers water directly to the plant roots through a network of pipes and emitters, resulting in more localized water application and potentially reduced deep percolation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This difference in water application methods significantly influences soil moisture distribution patterns and the spatiotemporal dynamics of groundwater recharge, with drip irrigation showing a more rapid response to individual precipitation events compared to flood irrigation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021).
Flood Irrigation
Flood irrigation, a traditional method widely used in Valencia, involves applying water to the entire field surface, resulting in higher annual recharge rates compared to drip irrigation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). However, this method often leads to significant water losses through evaporation and deep percolation, potentially reducing overall water use efficiency in semi-arid regions (Zhang et al., 2022).
Characteristics and implementation
Flood irrigation in Valencia typically involves dividing fields into basins or furrows and applying water to the entire surface, resulting in a more uniform distribution of soil moisture across the field. This method, while less water-efficient than drip irrigation, contributes to higher annual groundwater recharge rates due to increased deep percolation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). However, flood irrigation also leads to greater water losses through evaporation and runoff, particularly in Valencia's semi-arid climate, necessitating careful management to optimize water use efficiency .
Advantages and disadvantages
Flood irrigation offers several advantages, including lower initial investment costs and simpler implementation, particularly in regions with traditional irrigation infrastructure (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). However, this method is associated with higher water losses through evaporation and deep percolation, which can lead to inefficient water use and potential environmental issues such as waterlogging and salinization in semi-arid regions (Zhang et al., 2022).
Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation systems in Valencia deliver water directly to the plant roots through a network of pipes and emitters, resulting in more efficient water use compared to flood irrigation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This localized water application method has been shown to reduce deep percolation and alter the spatiotemporal patterns of groundwater recharge, with drip-irrigated fields exhibiting a more rapid response to individual precipitation events (Pool et al., 2021).
System components and operation
Drip irrigation systems in Valencia typically consist of a main line, sub-main lines, laterals, and emitters, with filtration and pressure regulation components at the system head (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). The operation of these systems involves precise control of water application rates and timing, allowing for frequent, low-volume irrigation events that maintain optimal soil moisture levels in the root zone (Zhang et al., 2022).
Benefits and limitations
Drip irrigation offers several benefits, including improved water use efficiency and reduced water losses compared to flood irrigation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). However, this method also presents limitations, such as potential clogging of emitters and higher initial investment costs, which may affect its adoption in certain agricultural contexts (Zhang et al., 2022).
Study Area: Valencia, Spain
Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape is characterized by complex topography and diverse agricultural practices, creating unique challenges for water resource management. The region's aquifers, primarily composed of karstic formations, exhibit short residence times and high vulnerability to climate variability and human activities (Hssaisoune et al., 2022). This hydrogeological context underscores the importance of understanding the spatiotemporal impacts of different irrigation methods on groundwater recharge in Valencia.
Geographical and climatic characteristics
Valencia's geographical characteristics include a diverse landscape ranging from coastal plains to mountainous regions, with an average annual rainfall of approximately 450 mm (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2023). The region's semi-arid Mediterranean climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and mild winters, creating unique challenges for water resource management and agricultural practices (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021).
Agricultural practices and water management
Agricultural practices in Valencia have undergone significant changes in recent years, with a notable shift from traditional flood irrigation to more efficient drip irrigation systems (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This transition has led to alterations in water distribution patterns and soil moisture dynamics, necessitating a reevaluation of water management strategies in the region (Pool et al., 2021).
Current state of groundwater resources
The current state of groundwater resources in Valencia is characterized by increasing pressure due to intensive agricultural practices and climate variability. Recent studies have shown that the transition from flood to drip irrigation has led to a decrease in mean groundwater recharge of up to 9.3% under drip irrigation, compared to 6.6% under flood irrigation (Pool et al., 2021). This reduction in recharge rates, coupled with the region's karstic aquifer formations exhibiting short residence times, underscores the vulnerability of Valencia's groundwater resources to human activities and climate change .
Research Methodology
To investigate the spatiotemporal impact of flood and drip irrigation systems on groundwater recharge in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape, a comprehensive research methodology is essential. This study employs a distributed hydrological modeling approach that recognizes the differences in water balance resulting from localized application in drip irrigation and extensive application in flood irrigation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). The methodology incorporates multi-objective calibration frameworks to address multiple process scales, including annual evaporative index, monthly groundwater level dynamics, and daily soil moisture dynamics (Pool et al., 2021).
Data collection techniques
The data collection techniques employed in this study encompass a range of methods to capture the complex spatiotemporal dynamics of groundwater recharge under different irrigation systems. These include the use of soil moisture sensors, groundwater level monitoring wells, and meteorological stations to gather high-resolution data on soil water content, groundwater table fluctuations, and climatic variables (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). Additionally, remote sensing techniques are utilized to assess large-scale evapotranspiration patterns and land use changes, providing a comprehensive view of the hydrological processes at play in Valencia's semi-arid landscape (Pool et al., 2021).
Spatial and temporal analysis methods
The spatial and temporal analysis methods employed in this study incorporate advanced geostatistical techniques and time series analysis to capture the complex dynamics of groundwater recharge under different irrigation systems. These methods include variogram analysis to characterize spatial variability, kriging interpolation for generating continuous recharge maps, and wavelet analysis to identify temporal patterns and periodicities in recharge rates (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). Additionally, the study utilizes isotopic tracing techniques to assess groundwater age and residence time, providing insights into the vulnerability of the hydrological system to climate variability and human activities (Hssaisoune et al., 2022).
Modeling approaches for groundwater recharge estimation
The modeling approaches for groundwater recharge estimation in this study incorporate physically-based distributed hydrological models that account for the spatiotemporal variability of soil moisture distribution under different irrigation systems (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). These models are coupled with isotopic tracing techniques to assess groundwater age and residence time, providing insights into the vulnerability of Valencia's karstic aquifer system to climate variability and human activities (Hssaisoune et al., 2022).
Spatiotemporal Effects of Flood Irrigation
The spatiotemporal effects of flood irrigation in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape are characterized by higher annual recharge rates compared to drip irrigation, with flood-irrigated recharge exceeding drip-irrigated recharge by approximately 10% at annual time scales (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). However, flood irrigation exhibits a smaller recharge response to individual precipitation events, with 18 rainfall events potentially generating more than half of the annual recharge (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021).
Recharge patterns and rates
Flood irrigation in Valencia exhibits distinct spatial patterns, with higher recharge rates observed in areas with permeable soils and shallow water tables (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). Temporally, flood irrigation demonstrates a more consistent recharge pattern throughout the year, with peak rates occurring during the main irrigation season from April to September (Pool et al., 2021).
Seasonal variations
Seasonal variations in flood irrigation recharge patterns in Valencia are influenced by the region's semi-arid Mediterranean climate, with peak recharge rates occurring during the main irrigation season from April to September . The temporal distribution of recharge under flood irrigation is also affected by the karstic nature of Valencia's aquifers, which exhibit short residence times and high vulnerability to climate variability (Hssaisoune et al., 2022).
Long-term impacts on groundwater levels
The long-term impacts of flood irrigation on groundwater levels in Valencia are characterized by higher annual recharge rates compared to drip irrigation, with flood-irrigated recharge exceeding drip-irrigated recharge by approximately 10% at annual time scales (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). However, this increased recharge is accompanied by potential environmental issues such as waterlogging and salinization, which can negatively affect soil quality and agricultural productivity in the region's semi-arid climate .
Spatiotemporal Effects of Drip Irrigation
The spatiotemporal effects of drip irrigation in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape are characterized by a more localized impact on soil moisture distribution and a more rapid response to individual precipitation events compared to flood irrigation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This irrigation method has been shown to reduce deep percolation and alter the spatiotemporal patterns of groundwater recharge, with drip-irrigated fields exhibiting a smaller recharge response to individual precipitation events compared to flood-irrigated fields (Pool et al., 2021).
Recharge characteristics and efficiency
Drip irrigation in Valencia demonstrates distinct recharge characteristics, with a more rapid response to individual precipitation events compared to flood irrigation (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). Studies have shown that 8-18 rainfall events could generate more than half of the annual recharge under drip irrigation, indicating a more dynamic and event-driven recharge pattern (Pool et al., 2021).
Temporal dynamics of recharge
The temporal dynamics of recharge under drip irrigation in Valencia exhibit a more pronounced response to individual precipitation events compared to flood irrigation. This heightened sensitivity to rainfall events is attributed to the localized soil moisture distribution patterns characteristic of drip irrigation systems, which allow for more rapid infiltration and percolation of rainwater (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021).
Spatial distribution of recharge zones
The spatial distribution of recharge zones under drip irrigation in Valencia exhibits a more heterogeneous pattern compared to flood irrigation, with localized areas of higher recharge rates corresponding to the placement of drip emitters (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This spatial variability is further influenced by soil characteristics and topography, resulting in complex recharge patterns that require high-resolution monitoring and modeling approaches to accurately quantify (Pool et al., 2021).
Comparative Analysis
The comparative analysis of flood and drip irrigation systems in Valencia reveals significant differences in their impacts on groundwater recharge and evapotranspiration rates. Studies have shown that flood-irrigated recharge tends to exceed drip-irrigated recharge by approximately 10% at annual time scales, while drip irrigation exhibits a more rapid response to individual precipitation events (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This difference in recharge patterns has important implications for water resource management and agricultural sustainability in the region's semi-arid Mediterranean climate.
Recharge effectiveness: Flood vs. Drip irrigation
The comparative analysis reveals that while flood irrigation contributes to higher annual recharge rates, drip irrigation demonstrates a more dynamic response to individual precipitation events (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This difference in recharge patterns is further influenced by factors such as soil characteristics, topography, and the karstic nature of Valencia's aquifers, which exhibit short residence times and high vulnerability to climate variability .
Spatial patterns and hotspots
The spatial patterns and hotspots of groundwater recharge under flood and drip irrigation in Valencia exhibit distinct characteristics, with flood irrigation showing more uniform distribution across fields and drip irrigation creating localized zones of higher recharge near emitter locations (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). These spatial variations are further influenced by topography, soil properties, and the karstic nature of Valencia's aquifers, which demonstrate short residence times and high vulnerability to climate fluctuations .
Temporal trends and seasonality
The temporal trends and seasonality of groundwater recharge under flood and drip irrigation in Valencia exhibit distinct patterns, with flood irrigation showing more consistent recharge throughout the year and drip irrigation demonstrating a more pronounced response to individual precipitation events (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). These temporal variations are further influenced by the karstic nature of Valencia's aquifers, which exhibit short residence times and high vulnerability to climate fluctuations .
Environmental and Agricultural Implications
The environmental and agricultural implications of transitioning from flood to drip irrigation in Valencia extend beyond water resource management, affecting soil salinity, crop yields, and ecosystem services. A study conducted in the Northern Nile Delta of Egypt, which shares similar semi-arid Mediterranean conditions, demonstrated that the application of on-farm drip irrigation led to increased productivity and profitability for various crops (Yang et al., 2023). This finding suggests potential economic benefits for farmers in Valencia adopting drip irrigation systems, while also highlighting the need for comprehensive assessments of long-term ecological impacts.
Water use efficiency and conservation
The transition to drip irrigation in Valencia has led to improved water use efficiency, with studies showing a reduction in water consumption of up to 30% compared to flood irrigation systems (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This increased efficiency is particularly crucial in the context of Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean climate, where water scarcity is a persistent challenge for agricultural sustainability (Hssaisoune et al., 2022).
Soil salinization and land degradation
The transition to drip irrigation in Valencia has also led to changes in soil salinization patterns, with localized salt accumulation observed near emitter locations . This shift in salt distribution necessitates careful management practices to mitigate potential long-term impacts on soil quality and crop productivity, particularly in areas with pre-existing salinity issues .
Crop productivity and sustainability
The transition to drip irrigation in Valencia has demonstrated significant impacts on crop productivity and sustainability. A study conducted in the Northern Nile Delta of Egypt, which shares similar semi-arid Mediterranean conditions, revealed that the application of on-farm drip irrigation led to increased productivity and profitability for various crops (Yang et al., 2023). This finding suggests potential economic benefits for farmers in Valencia adopting drip irrigation systems, while also underscoring the need for comprehensive assessments of long-term ecological impacts on soil health and groundwater dynamics (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021).
Socio-economic Considerations
The socio-economic considerations surrounding the transition from flood to drip irrigation in Valencia encompass a range of factors, including implementation costs, labor requirements, and potential economic benefits for farmers. A study conducted in the Northern Nile Delta of Egypt, which shares similar semi-arid Mediterranean conditions, revealed that the application of on-farm drip irrigation led to increased productivity and profitability for various crops (Yang et al., 2023). This finding suggests potential economic advantages for Valencia's agricultural sector, while also underscoring the need for comprehensive assessments of long-term ecological and hydrological impacts.
Cost-benefit analysis of irrigation methods
A comprehensive cost-benefit analysis of flood and drip irrigation methods in Valencia reveals that while drip irrigation systems have higher initial investment costs, they offer long-term economic advantages through improved water use efficiency and potential yield increases (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). A study conducted in the Northern Nile Delta of Egypt demonstrated that on-farm drip irrigation led to increased productivity and profitability for various crops, suggesting similar economic benefits for Valencia's agricultural sector (Yang et al., 2023).
Policy implications for water management
The policy implications for water management in Valencia extend beyond the agricultural sector, encompassing broader environmental and economic considerations. A comprehensive approach to water policy must balance the potential economic benefits of drip irrigation, such as increased crop productivity and water use efficiency, with the need to maintain sustainable groundwater recharge rates and ecosystem services (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). This necessitates the development of adaptive management strategies that can respond to the complex spatiotemporal dynamics of groundwater recharge under different irrigation systems and changing climatic conditions (Pool et al., 2021).
Farmer adoption and challenges
Farmer adoption of drip irrigation systems in Valencia faces several challenges, including high initial investment costs, technical knowledge requirements, and potential changes in traditional farming practices. A study conducted in the semi-arid areas of Tigray, Ethiopia, identified similar barriers to drip irrigation adoption, highlighting the importance of addressing farmers' perceptions and socio-economic factors in promoting sustainable irrigation practices (Zghibi et al., 2020). To overcome these challenges, targeted education programs and financial incentives may be necessary to facilitate the transition from flood to drip irrigation systems in Valencia's agricultural sector.
Future Projections and Recommendations
Future projections for Valencia's irrigation dynamics indicate a potential increase in water scarcity due to climate change, necessitating adaptive management strategies that balance agricultural productivity with sustainable groundwater recharge (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). To address these challenges, recommendations include the implementation of precision irrigation technologies and the development of drought-resistant crop varieties tailored to Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean climate (Yang et al., 2023).
Climate change impacts on irrigation and recharge
Climate change is projected to exacerbate water scarcity in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean climate, with potential increases in temperature leading to higher irrigation demands and reduced groundwater recharge (Guyennon et al., 2017). To address these challenges, adaptive management strategies such as Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) may be implemented to enhance water supply system resiliency and mitigate the impacts of climate change on groundwater resources (Guyennon et al., 2017).
Sustainable irrigation strategies for Valencia
To address the challenges of water scarcity and climate change impacts in Valencia, sustainable irrigation strategies should focus on implementing precision irrigation technologies and developing drought-resistant crop varieties tailored to the region's semi-arid Mediterranean climate (Yang et al., 2023). Additionally, the adoption of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) techniques may enhance water supply system resiliency and mitigate the impacts of climate change on groundwater resources .
Research gaps and future directions
Several key research gaps remain in understanding the complex spatiotemporal dynamics of groundwater recharge under different irrigation systems in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape. Future research directions should focus on developing high-resolution monitoring networks and advanced modeling techniques to capture the fine-scale heterogeneity of recharge processes across different spatial and temporal scales (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). Additionally, long-term studies are needed to assess the cumulative impacts of irrigation transitions on groundwater resources and ecosystem services, particularly in the context of climate change and increasing water scarcity (Pool et al., 2021).
Conclusion
The transition from flood to drip irrigation in Valencia has significant implications for the region's water resources and agricultural sustainability. A comprehensive analysis of these impacts requires consideration of both short-term economic benefits and long-term ecological consequences (Yang et al., 2023). Future research should focus on developing adaptive management strategies that optimize water use efficiency while maintaining sustainable groundwater recharge rates in the face of increasing climate variability .
Summary of key findings
The key findings of this study underscore the complex interplay between irrigation methods, groundwater recharge, and agricultural sustainability in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape. Flood irrigation demonstrated higher annual recharge rates, exceeding drip irrigation by approximately 10%, while drip irrigation exhibited a more rapid response to individual precipitation events (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). These findings highlight the need for adaptive management strategies that optimize water use efficiency while maintaining sustainable groundwater recharge rates, particularly in the context of increasing climate variability and water scarcity (Pool et al., 2021).
Importance of balanced approach to irrigation and groundwater management
The importance of a balanced approach to irrigation and groundwater management in Valencia is underscored by the complex interplay between water use efficiency, agricultural productivity, and long-term ecological sustainability. This approach necessitates the integration of advanced monitoring technologies and adaptive management strategies to optimize water allocation while maintaining groundwater recharge rates (Pool, Francés, García‐Prats, Pulido‐Velazquez, et al., 2021). Additionally, the implementation of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) techniques may enhance water supply system resiliency and mitigate the impacts of climate change on groundwater resources in Valencia's semi-arid Mediterranean landscape.
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